Critically important antibiotics, with lower to higher risk of antimicrobial resistance, were used by farmers (40%). Gender (χ2 = 9.30, = 0.01), and location (χ2 = 216.86, ≤ 0.001), influenced farmers’ choice of methods for bird treatment. Semi-scavenging system of production had the highest proportion (49%) of farmers using antimicrobials, compared to semi-intensive (37%) and scavenging (14%) systems. Antimicrobials were used primarily for treatment and prevention of diseases (78%).
The western method (pharmaceuticals) was practiced by a large proportion of farmers (60%), either solely (25%) or in combination with EVM (35%). The practice of EVM was prevalent among most of the farmers (39%). A cross-sectional study was conducted in five states (agroecologies) of Nigeria using structured questionnaires administered on a total of 350 farmers. Therefore, this study investigated the use of antimicrobials among smallholder poultry farmers in Nigeria, and compared the prevalence of antimicrobial drug use against the practice of ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM). Much emphasis has been placed on intensively managed poultry production systems, which routinely use antimicrobials as against smallholder poultry production systems (SPPS). The indiscriminate use of antimicrobials in livestock production is of increasing concern due to the threat of antimicrobial resistance in both humans and animals. Results indicated that to overcome barriers experienced by key stakeholders, a carefully considered, evidence-based approach, incorporating behaviour change theory, is required when designing intricate interventions/strategies, in order to elicit successful and sustained AMU behaviour change. Five key themes emerged from the data: (i) knowledge and awareness of antimicrobials (ii) attitudes towards antimicrobials (iii) influential relationships (iv) resources and (v) factors influencing AMU. Findings on the psychosocial aspects were thematically analysed. Of the 1156 articles identified, 103 were retained for this review. Database searches were limited to articles utilizing qualitative and quantitative methodologies, available in English with no restriction on publication year. Therefore, the aim of this critical review is to investigate, assess and collate the current body of evidence to identify psychosocial factors including knowledge, understanding, perceptions, attitudes and behaviours surrounding AMU. Thus, ascertaining farmers' and veterinarians' behaviours surrounding AMU is essential to address imprudent AMU and generate behaviour change within the agri-food sector. The agri-food sector has attracted increased attention for imprudent antimicrobial use (AMU) and its contribution to AMR. This was further compounded by the absence of governmental supervision and control on the use of drugs.Īntimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global health emergency affecting humans and animals, diminishing the effectiveness of medication used to treat illness. In addition to this, there was a lack of disease control programmes which probably resulted in a massive use of antibiotics to control endemic diseases. The study also concluded that traditional farming systems in Sudan relied heavily on antimicrobial medication to control disease and almost half of the farms surveyed were treating their flocks with antimicrobials. The study found that farmers and producers had a lack of knowledge about antimicrobial residues, their withdrawal periods and the risk posed by the consumption of these residues. It was found that 49% of the farms surveyed were on antibiotic treatment when the survey was conducted, whilst 59% of the farms had used antibiotics within the last 3 months. Ninety-eight per cent of participating farms comprised open-sided houses.
Based on this information, a structured questionnaire survey of 92 farms was then conducted in the state in April 2008 to collect data on antibiotic usage, demographic data and public health awareness. This paper reports the findings of the census. An initial census of layer farms in Khartoum State, Sudan, was carried out in late 2007 and early 2008 and found that there were 252 layer farms with a total population of 2 221 800 birds.
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